Ganga River System

 

River	Source
Bhagirathi (Ganga)	Gangotri glacier
Yamuna	Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak
Chambal	Janapao Hills in the Vindhya Range
Banas	Aravali Range
Betwa	Bhopal district
Ken	Barner Range
Son	Amarkantak Plateau
Damodar (‘Sorrow of Bengal’)	Chotanagpur plateau
Ramganga River	Garhwal district of Uttarakhand
Ghaghra River	Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the trans-Himalayan origin)
The Kali River (border between Nepal and Uttarakhand)	Glaciers of trans-Himalayas
Gandak River	Tibet-Nepal border
Burhi Gandak	Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border
Kosi (‘Sorrow of Bihar’)	Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi unite at Triveni north of the Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.

Ganga River

• The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Kashi District of Uttarakhand at an elevation of 7,010 m.
• Alaknanda River joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag.
• From Devapryag the river is called as Ganga.

The Ganges was ranked as the fifth most polluted river of the world in 2007. Pollution threatens many fish species and amphibian species and the endangered Ganges river dolphin (Blind Dolphin).  The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been a major failure thus far, due to corruption, lack of technical expertise, poor environmental planning, and lack of support from religious authorities.

Major tributaries of Alaknanda East Trisul (joins Alaknanda at Karan Prayag) Pindar (rises from Nanda Devi) Mandakini or Kali Ganga (joins Alaknanda at Rudra Prayag) Dhauliganga Bishenganga. [Kishenganga is the tributary of Jhelum]

Major tributaries of Bhagirathi Bheling

• Ganga debouches [emerge from a confined space into a wide, open area] from the hills into plain area at
• It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad.
• Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south-east.
• At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh (it ceases to be known as the Ganga after Farraka).
• Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is known here) joins Padma-Meghna at
• The total length of the Ganga river from its source to its mouth (measured along the Hugli) is 2,525 km.

Ganga – Brahmaputra Delta

• Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Ganga, along with the Brahmaputra, forms the largest delta of the world between the Bhagirathi/Hugli and the Padma/Meghna covering an area of 58,752 sq km.
• The coastline of delta is a highly indented area.
• The delta is made of a web of distributaries and islands and is covered by dense forests called the
• A major part of the delta is a low-lying swamp which is flooded by marine water during high tide.

Right Bank Tributaries of The Ganga

• Most of them except Yamuna originate in the peninsular region.

Yamuna River

• Largest and the most important tributary.
• It originates from the Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak in the Garhwal region in Uttarakhand at an elevation of about 6,000 meters.
• It cuts across the Nag Tibba, the Mussoorie and the Shiwalik ranges.
• It emerges out of the hilly area and enters plains near
• Its main affluent in the upper reaches is the Tons which also rises from the Bandarpunch glacier.
• It joins Yamuna below Kalsi before the latter leaves the hills.
• At this site, the water carried by the Tons is twice the water carried by the Yamuna.

Non – Peninsular Tributaries 1.   Rishiganga 2.   Uma 3.   Hanuman Ganga and 4.   Tons join it in the mountains. 5.   Hindon joins at Ghaziabad in the plain area

Peninsular Tributaries Most of the Peninsular rivers flow into the Yamuna between Agra and Allahabad. 1.   Chambal 2.   Sind 3.   Betwa 4.   Ken.

• It unites with the Ganga near Triveni Sangam, Allahabad.
• The total length of the Yamuna from its origin till Allahabad is 1,376 km.
• It creates the highly fertile alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between itself and the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic plain.

Chambal River

• The Chambal rises in the highlands of Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan Range.
• It flows through the Malwa Plateau.
• It joins the Yamuna in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh.
• The river flows much below its banks due to severe erosion because of poor rainfall and numerous deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal Valley, giving rise to badland topography. {Arid Landforms}
• The total length of the river is 1,050 km.

Dams on the Chambal

• The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the four dams built on the Chambal River, located on the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border.
• The Rana Pratap Sagar dam is a dam located 52 km downstream of Gandhi Sagar dam on across the Chambal River in Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan.
• The Jawahar Sagar Dam is the third dam in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located 29 km upstream of Kota city and 26 km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar dam.
• The Kota Barrage is the fourth in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located about 0.8 km upstream of Kota City in Rajasthan.
• Water released after power generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar Dams, is diverted by Kota Barrage for irrigation in Rajasthan and in Madhya Pradesh through canals.

Keoladeo National Park is supplied with water from Chambal river irrigation project.

Banas River

• The Banas is a tributary of the Chambal.
• It originates in the southern part of the Aravali Range.
• It join the Chambal on Rajasthan – Madhya Pradesh border near Sawai Madhopur.

Sind River

• The Sind originates in Vidisha Plateau of Madhya Pradesh.
• It flows for a distance of 415 km before it joins the Yamuna.

Betwa River

• The Betwa rises in Bhopal district (Vindhyan Range) and joins the Yamuna near
• It has a total length of 590 km.
• The Dhasan is its important tributary.

Ken River

• The Ken river rising from the Barner Range of Madhya Pradesh joins the Yamuna near Chila.

Son River

• The Son River rises in the Amarkantak Plateau.
• Its source is close to the origin of the Narmada.
• It passes along the Kaimur Range.
• It joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna district of Bihar.
• It flows for a distance of 784 km from its source.
• The important tributaries of the Son are the Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the Kanhar and the North Koel. Almost all the tributaries join it on its right bank.

Damodar river

• The Damodar river rises in the hills of the Chotanagpur plateau and flows through a rift valley.
• Rich in mineral resources, the valley is home to large-scale mining and industrial activity.
• It has a number of tributaries and subtributaries, such as Barakar, Konar, Bokaro, Haharo, etc.
• The Barakar is the most important tributary of the Damodar.
• Several dams have been constructed in the valley, for the generation of hydroelectric power. The valley is called “the Ruhr of India”.
• The first dam was built across the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar river.
• It used to cause devastating floods as a result of which it earned the name ‘Sorrow of Bengal’. Now the river is tamed by constructing numerous dams.
• It joins the Hugli River 48 km below Kolkata.
• The total length of the river is 541 km.

Left Bank Tributaries of The Ganga River

• These rivers originate in the Himalayas.
• The major tributaries apart from the Yamuna, are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Burhi Gandak, the Bagmati, and the Kosi.

Ramganga River

• The Ramganga river rises in the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.
• It enters the Ganga Plain near Kalagarh.
• It joins the Ganga at
• The Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the Kosi, and the Deoha (Gorra) are important tributaries of Ramganga.

Ghaghra River

• Its source is near Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the trans-Himalayan origin).
• It is known as the Karnaili in Western Nepal.
• Its important tributaries are the Sarda, the Sarju (Ayodhya is located on its bank) and the Rapti.
• The Ghaghara joins the Ganga a few kilometres downstream of Chhapra in Bihar.
• After reaching the plain area, its stream gets divided into many branches of which, Koriyab and Garwa are important.
• The river bed is sandy and sudden bends start occurring in the stream.
• The river has a high flood frequency and has shifted its course several times.

Kali River

• Rises in the high glaciers of trans-Himalaya.
• It forms the boundary between Nepal and Kumaon.
• It is known as the Sarda after it reaches the plains near Tanakpur.
• It joins the

Gandak River

• Originates near the Tibet-Nepal border at a height of 7,620 m
• It receives a large number of tributaries in Nepal Himalaya.
• Its important tributaries are the Kali Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and the Trishuli.
• It debouches into the plains at
• It flows into Ganga at Hajipur in Bihar.

Burhi Gandak

• Originates from the western slopes of Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border.
• It joins the Ganga near Monghyr town.

Kosi River

• The Kosi river consists of seven streams namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha, Doodh Kosi, Botia Kosi, Arun and Tamber and is popularly known as
• These streams flow through eastern Nepal which is known as the Sapt Kaushik region.
• The sources of seven streams of the Kosi are located in snow covered areas which also receive heavy rainfall.
• Consequently, huge volume of water flows with tremendous speed.
• Seven streams mingle with each other to form three streams named the Tumar, Arun and Sun Kosi.
• They unite at Triveni north of the Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.
• The river enters the Tarai of Nepal after cutting a narrow gorge in the Mahabharata Range.
• The joins the Ganga near
• Soon after debouching onto the plain the river becomes sluggish.
• Large scale deposition of eroded material takes place in the plain region.
• The river channel is braided and it shifts its course frequently. This has resulted in frequent devastating floods and has converted large tracts of cultivable land into waste land in Bihar. Thus the river is often termed as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
• In order to tame this river, a barrage was constructed in 1965 near Hanuman Nagar in Nepal.
• Embankments for flood control have been constructed as a joint venture of India and Nepal.

Brahmaputra River System

Region	Name
Tibet	Tsangpo (meaning ‘The Purifier’)
China	Yarlung Zangbo Jiangin
Assam Valley	Dihang or Siong, South of Sadiya: Brahmaputra
Bangladesh	Jamuna River
	Padma River: Combined Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra
	Meghana: From the confluence of Padma and Meghna [View image above]

• The Brahmaputra (meaning the son of Brahma).
• It is 2,900 km in length.
• Source: Chemayungdung glacier (Kailas Range) at an elevation of about 5,150 m. It’s source is very close to the sources of Indus and Satluj.
• Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake.
• Brahmaputra flows eastwards in Southern Tibet for about 1,800 km.
• In Tibet it passes through the depression formed by the Indus-Tsangpo Structure Zone between the Great Himalayas in the south and the Kailas Range in the north.
• Inspite of the exceptionally high altitude, the Tsangpo has a gentle slope. The river is sluggish and has a wide navigable channel for about 640 km.
• It receives a large number of tributaries in Tibet. The first major tributary is the Raga Tsangpo meeting the Tsangpo near Lhatse Dzong.
• The river Ngangchu flows through the trade centre of Gyantse in the south and joins the main river.
• Towards the end of its journey in Tibet, its course abruptly takes a south ward turn around Namcha Barwa (7,756 m)(Syntaxial Bend).
• Here it cuts across the eastern Himalaya through the Dihang or Siang Gorge and emerges from the mountains near Sadiya in the Assam Valley.
• Here it first flows under the name of Siong and then as the Dihang.
• In the north-eastern parts of Assam Valley, it is joined by two important tributaries viz, the Dibang (or Sikang) from the north and Lohit from the south.
• From Sadiya (Assam Valley) onwards, this mighty river is known as the
• The main streams merging with the Brahmaputra from the north are, Subansiri, Kameng, Dhansiri (north), Raidak, Tista etc..
• The Tista was a tributary of the Ganga prior to the floods of 1787 after which it diverted its course eastwards to join the Brahmaputra.
• The Brahmaputra has a braided channel (flow into shallow interconnected channels divided by deposited earth) for most of its passage through Assam where channels keep shifting. It carries a lot of silt and there is excessive meandering.
• The river is nearly 16 km wide at Dibrugarh and forms many islands, the most important of which is MAJULI. It is 90 km long and measures 20 km at its widest.
• With rainfall concentrated during the monsoon months only the river has to carry enormous quantities of water and silt which results in disastrous floods. The Brahmaputra is thus truly a River of Sorrow.
• The river is navigable for a distance of 1,384 km upto Dibrugarh from its mouth and serves as an excellent inland water transport route.
• Brahmaputra bends southwards and enters Bangladesh near Dhubri.
• It flows for a distance of 270 km in the name of Jamuna river and joins the Ganga at
• The united stream of the Jamuna and the Ganga flows further in the name of
• About 105 km further downstream, the Padma is joined on the left bank by the Meghna, originating in the mountainous region of Assam.
• From the confluence of Padma and Meghna, the combined river is known as the Meghna which makes a very broad estuary before pouring into the Bay of Bengal.

How Big is Our Solar System?

Age	4.568 billion years
Location	Local Interstellar Cloud, Local Bubble, Orion–Cygnus Arm, Milky Way
System mass	1.0014 Solar masses
Nearest star	·         Proxima Centauri (4.25 ly) ·         Alpha Centauri (4.37 ly)
Nearest known planetary system	Proxima Centauri system (4.25 ly)
Planetary system
Semi-major axis of outer known planet (Neptune)	30.10 AU (4.5 bill. km; 2.8 bill. mi)
Distance to Kuiper cliff	50 AU
Populations
Stars	1 (Sun)
Known planets	8 (Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune)
Known dwarf planets	3 universally accepted (Ceres Pluto Eris) 2 more expected to be (Haumea Makemake)
Known natural satellites	575 (185 planetary 390 minor planetary)
Known minor planets	796,354
Known comets	4,143
Identified rounded satellites	19 (5–6 likely in hydrostatic equilibrium)
Orbit about Galactic Center
Invariable-to-galactic plane inclination	60.19° (ecliptic)
Distance to Galactic Center	27,000 ± 1,000 ly
Orbital speed	220 km/s; 136 mps
Orbital period	225–250 myr
Star-related properties
Spectral type	G2V
Frost line	≈5 AU
Distance to heliopause	≈120 AU
Hill sphere radius	≈1–3 ly

Comprehensive overview of the Solar System. The Sun, planets, dwarf planets and moons are at scale for their relative sizes, not for distances. A separate distance scale is at the bottom. Moons are listed near their planets by proximity of their orbits; only the largest moons are shown

Inner Solar System

The inner Solar System is the region comprising the terrestrial planets and the asteroid belt.  Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System are relatively close to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is less than the distance between the orbits of Jupiter and Saturn. This region is also within the frost line, which is a little less than 5 AU (about 700 million km) from the Sun.


Inner planets
The four terrestrial or inner planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of refractory minerals, such as the silicates—which form their crusts and mantles—and metals, such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have atmospheres substantial enough to generate weather; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features, such as rift valleys and volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet, which designates those planets that are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e. Mercury and Venus). 

Mercury

Mercury (0.4 AU from the Sun) is the closest planet to the Sun and on average, all seven other planets. The smallest planet in the Solar System (0.055 M_⊕), Mercury has no natural satellites. Besides impact craters, its only known geological features are lobed ridges or rupes that were probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history. Mercury's very tenuous atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind. Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle have not yet been adequately explained. Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant impact, or that it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun's energy.

Venus

Venus (0.7 AU from the Sun) is close in size to Earth (0.815 M_⊕) and, like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere, and evidence of internal geological activity. It is much drier than Earth, and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 °C (752 °F), most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. No definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected on Venus, but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion of its substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its atmosphere is being replenished by volcanic eruptions.

Earth

Earth (1 AU from the Sun) is the largest and densest of the inner planets, the only one known to have current geological activity, and the only place where life is known to exist. Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth's atmosphere is radically different from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21% free oxygen. It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System.

Mars

Mars (1.5 AU from the Sun) is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 M_⊕). It has an atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide with a surface pressure of 6.1 millibars (roughly 0.6% of that of Earth).Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes, such as Olympus Mons, and rift valleys, such as Valles Marineris, shows geological activity that may have persisted until as recently as 2 million years ago. Its red colour comes from iron oxide (rust) in its soil. Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be either captured asteroids, or ejected debris from a massive impact early in Mars's history

Outer Solar System

The outer region of the Solar System is home to the giant planets and their large moons. The centaurs and many short-period comets also orbit in this region. Due to their greater distance from the Sun, the solid objects in the outer Solar System contain a higher proportion of volatiles, such as water, ammonia, and methane than those of the inner Solar System because the lower temperatures allow these compounds to remain solid. 

Outer planets

The four outer planets, or giant planets (sometimes called Jovian planets), collectively make up 99% of the mass known to orbit the Sun. Jupiter and Saturn are together more than 400 times the mass of Earth and consist overwhelmingly of hydrogen and helium. Uranus and Neptune are far less massive—less than 20 Earth masses (M_⊕) each—and are composed primarily of ices. For these reasons, some astronomers suggest they belong in their own category, ice giants. All four giant planets have rings, although only Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth. The term superior planet designates planets outside Earth's orbit and thus includes both the outer planets and Mars.

Jupiter

Jupiter (5.2 AU), at 318 M_⊕, is 2.5 times the mass of all the other planets put together. It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot. Jupiter has 79 known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating. Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury.

Saturn

Saturn (9.5 AU), distinguished by its extensive ring system, has several similarities to Jupiter, such as its atmospheric composition and magnetosphere. Although Saturn has 60% of Jupiter's volume, it is less than a third as massive, at 95 M_⊕. Saturn is the only planet of the Solar System that is less dense than water. The rings of Saturn are made up of small ice and rock particles. Saturn has 82 confirmed satellites composed largely of ice. Two of these, Titan and Enceladus, show signs of geological activity. Titan, the second-largest moon in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere.

Uranus

Uranus (19.2 AU), at 14 M_⊕, is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely among the planets, it orbits the Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It has a much colder core than the other giant planets and radiates very little heat into space. Uranus has 27 known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel, and Miranda.

Neptune

Neptune (30.1 AU), though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (17 M_⊕) and hence more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn.^[103] Neptune has 14 known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen.^[104] Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit. Neptune is accompanied in its orbit by several minor planets, termed Neptune trojans, that are in 1:1 resonance with it. 


Unit Conversions III
1 Astronomical Unit =  1.0 AU = 1.49 x 108 kilometers
1 Parsec = 3.26 Light years = 3 x 1018 centimeters = 206,265AU
1 Watt = 107 ergs/sec 1 Star = 2 x 10 33 grams 
 1 Yard = 36 inches          
 1 meter = 39.37 inches    
 1 mile = 5,280 feet 1 Liter = 1000 cm3      
 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters 1 kilogram = 2.2 pounds
 1 Gallon = 3.78 Liters    1 kilometer = 0.62 miles 



   
  1) Length of  a year.            31,560,000.0  seconds                Answer:  3.156 x 107 seconds

2) Speed of light:        299,792.4 kilometers/sec
 Answer: 2.997924 x 105 km/sec 

3) Mass of the sun:                1,989,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000   grams                Answer:  1.989 x 10 power33 grams 

4) Mass of Earth:           5,974,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 kilograms                Answer:  5.974 x 10 power 24 kg 

5) One light-year :             9,460,500,000,000  kilometers                Answer:  9.4605 x 10 power12 km 

6) Power output of sun :            382,700,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  watts Answer: 3.827 x 10 power 26 watts 

7) Mass of an electron:                   0.00000000000000000000000000000091096 kilograms                Answer: 9.10power 96 x 10-31 kg 

8) Energy equivalent of one electron-Volt :                            0.00000000000000000016022 joules Answer: 1.6022 x 10power -19 Joules 

9) Ratio of proton to electron mass:    1,836.2 Answer; 1.8362 x 10power3 

10) Planck's Constant:     0.000000000000000000000000006626068  ergs seconds                Answer: 6.626068 x 10power-27 ergs seconds 

11) Radius of hydrogen atom :                                    0.00000000529177 centimeters    Answer: 5.29177 x 10power-9 cm 

12) Radius of Earth's orbit:                    14,959,789,200,000  centimeters Answer: 1.49597892 x 10 power13 cm 

13) Smallest unit of physical distance:  0.0000000000000000000000000000000016  centimeters                Answer: 1.6 x 10power -33 cm

14) Diameter of Visible Universe:  26,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 centimeters Answer; 2.6 x 10 power28 cm